​At some point during the period of the Golus Mitzraim, or roughly 40 years after the Exodus, the peak of the Ice Age occurred. As mentioned in the previous article, Baal HaTurim held a tradition that the rain of the Mabul ended when the Mishkan was erected, which occurred in the year 2449 from creation.
As volcanic eruptions slowed and fewer aerosols were released into the atmosphere, the sky began to clear. Rays of sunlight penetrated the clouds and met the dark surface of the ice. The ice appeared dark due to the mix of volcanic ash that had fallen alongside the snow, and as the snow compacted, it formed alternating layers of light and dark ice. Because of the ice's darkness, the melting process accelerated.

​Lakes formed along the edges of the ever-shrinking ice masses, reshaping the landscape. This was not just a creative process of remaking some parts of the Earth again, but also a destructive force. Water and mud washed away vast swaths of land, killing countless animals and perhaps even humans. Many of the flood legends preserved by various cultures may reflect these catastrophic floods rather than the one of Noah’s time

​In North America, the meltwater filled up basins, creating enormous lakes, some of which are comparable in size to today’s Great Lakes. These lakes themselves were covered with ice during the Ice Age. The Great Lakes, in fact, were likely either devoid of water or at a much lower level between the end of Noah’s Mabul and the onset of the Ice Age. Archaeological findings in the bottom of Lake Michigan (still debated) and below the present levels of the Black Sea, Mediterranean, Doggerland, and the western coast of India suggest that human settlements spread across vast areas of Earth during this period. I hope to revisit these fascinating topics in the future.

Many pluvial lakes filled to the brim, eventually reaching the lowest surrounding edges. When rapid ice melt caused these lakes to overflow, catastrophic flooding occurred, carving out new canyons. These canyons, unlike those formed at the end of the Mabul when water receded toward the oceans, appear much fresher. The sharp, rugged edges of canyons such as the Grand Canyon, Canyonlands, Royal Gorge, Malad Gorge, Bruneau Canyon, and even Columbia Gorge do not show signs of the centuries of erosion that would have smoothed their contours after heavy precipitation following the Mabul. Certainly, the deep cracks and nearly vertical walls in these canyons do not appear to have been shaped by millions of years of erosion. 

​It’s worth noting that Columbia Gorge is a unique case. It was carved through basalt rocks around 10,000 years ago, according to evolutionists, meaning it is relatively recent in geological terms. The Columbia Gorge is also a prominent example of Bretz’s hypothesis, which, for over 50 years, was dismissed by the dogmatic views of his contemporaries. It wasn’t until the 1970s that Bretz's theory was acknowledged, but even then, the Missoula Flood was placed within the broader framework of evolutionary geology. Further research revealed that Willamette Valley and Columbia Gorge contain deposits from multiple floods. This led to the formation of a rather far-fetched hypothesis that Lake Missoula formed multiple times after a catastrophic breach of its ice dam each time.

​Little attention has been paid to the fact that the enormous Bonneville Lake, whose remnants are now the Great Salt Lake in Utah, also drained through Hells Canyon and Columbia Gorge toward the ocean. Additionally, parts of Lake Lahontan, in present-day Nevada, likely used this same channel. There was also a vast lake filling the Idaho Valley, which drained through Hells Canyon and Columbia Gorge. In the Idaho Basin, several horse and camel skeletons have been found in Hagerman State Park on the edge of the Snake River. (See pictures above)
Interestingly, American geologists appear to have overlooked the northern regions. There are several large basins in Canada that may have filled temporarily with melting glacial water, only to overflow through Columbia Gorge. These catastrophic events could explain the varied deposits found in the basins along the Columbia River and within the Gorge itself.

These are just a few examples of the major bodies of water that once existed on the American continent as a result of the Mabul and later refilled due to the deglaciation of North America. There were also large lakes in southern Utah and Arizona responsible for the formation of the Grand Canyon. White Sands in New Mexico was once the bottom of a lake, and numerous basins across the western and even eastern parts of North America were filled with water. While vegetation and further erosion over the past 3,000 years have made these basins harder to observe, they were once prominent features of the landscape. The largest of these lakes was Lake Agassiz, which covered a large portion of Canada at the very end of the Glacial period. I hope to revisit the topic of pluvial lakes in the future, BeEzrat Hashem.

In Northern Africa, there were also many lakes, some of which were still present in Roman times and are depicted on ancient maps. Today, these areas are desert.
The Ice Age likely began to end sometime in the decades following the Exodus. As the ice caps melted, the cold water raised ocean levels by about 400 feet to the levels we recognize today. The Mediterranean basin was filled through the Zanclean flood, probably creating the largest waterfall in Earth's history. The features of this waterfall are still visible under the waters of Gibraltar. Unfortunately Google Earth blurred out this area recently for some reason.

​As the ice on the continents melted, the temperature of the oceans began to cool, causing another drastic climate event, and the ice in the Arctic Ocean began to form.
This quandary cannot be explained by any evolutionary model, as they lack a coherent explanation for why the Arctic Ocean remained ice-free during the Ice Age. Our creationist model, however, offers a reasonable scenario.
It is impossible at this point to establish an exact timeline for the cooling of the Arctic Ocean, as most of the research in this area is conducted by evolutionary geologists and climatologists working within an Old Earth framework. All discovered data is interpreted within this context. I suspect that the cooling of the Arctic Ocean was a gradual process that took place over millennia following the deglaciation of the continents.

​We know that the Vikings were able to settle in Greenland only about a thousand years ago. Erik the Red and his settlers established a colony there, living for about 500 years. They raised cattle and cultivated crops, including trees that no longer grow in Greenland today. Perhaps the glaciation of the island occurred as the surrounding waters cooled and froze.
Oceanic currents, both warm and cold, developed and disappeared over centuries, influencing the climate of vast regions. The Gulf Stream, for example, warms much of Europe, while El Niño affects weather patterns in the Americas. These two currents are well known, but measurements of climatic changes have only been taken for the past 200 years. This is a relatively short period, especially in comparison to the 4,100 years since the Mabul.
There is still much to explore regarding the Ice Age, which is just a small part of the broader history of the Mabul and its aftermath.
Hashem should bless this work with health, time, and resources to continue.

​On the 17th day of Cheshvan, in the year 1656 from creation, the supercontinent Pangea began to split apart in multiple places. Large portions of it started drifting away from one another. After detaching from Africa, the Indian subcontinent collided with Asia. Meanwhile, the Americas also came into contact with Asia, but from the opposite side—where Alaska met Chukotka, the eastern end of Siberia. As the continents gradually slowed their movement, they began to fracture and fold, leading to the formation of towering mountain ranges. However, this tectonic activity likely continued for some time, perhaps even after the year of the Mabul.
In the early days of the Mabul, the gaps between the departing portions of Pangea were filled with water, creating the impression that the water was emerging from below rather than from above, as would soon be the case. As the oceanic water began to evaporate, the mix of steam and volcanic ash covered the sky, causing the planet to cool. Precipitation of unprecedented scale followed, with rivers of water falling from the sky, washing away much of the life in their path, and flowing toward lower elevations. The rapid movement of the continents caused oceanic water to overflow onto the landmasses, dumping vast layers of mud. Most of these mud layers solidified into rock due to the presence of cementing agents, while others, with lower cementing content, remained as sands or semi-solidified strata.

​The deposits left behind were often distinct layers, each containing different ecosystems. In some places, these layers mixed sporadically. Rather than decomposing, many living organisms fossilized. Their cellular content was replaced with silica, leaving behind an abundance of fossils embedded in the rock layers. These "dead things" found within the rocks may very well serve as some of the most profound evidence of the global catastrophe that was the Mabul.

​Some creationists speculate that, as the continents drifted apart, they may have sunk into the Earth's mantle, allowing more sediment to accumulate on the surface of the continents. Indeed, in some areas, we find sedimentary layers several miles thick. However, it is also possible that many sedimentary deposits resulted from the creation process itself. When the original continent was formed by gathering material from the bottom of the ocean, which Earth was covered with in its early days, some of the mother rocks may have been crushed by the forces of water and other processes. It is, in my opinion, impossible to fully describe or even imagine these processes, as we must acknowledge that not only matter was being created, but also the very laws of nature that we observe today.

This chart shows the general agreement among geologists regarding strata designation and naming. The dates provided are based on the framework of evolutionary geology. Since the age of rocks is often determined by the "index fossils" they contain—fossils that are dated according to the evolutionary progression of life on Earth, as outlined by this widely accepted paradigm—the dates should be dismissed. It’s important to note that no column like this exists anywhere on Earth where the superposition of rocks can be observed continuously. Instead, this column is constructed from fragments of strata from various locations around the world. Nevertheless, creationists continue to use this nomenclature within their own paradigm. We hope to dedicate a special article to further analyze and discuss this column.

​Generally, Precambrian rocks are free of fossils, as these rocks were likely formed before life emerged on Earth. Following the so-called Cambrian explosion, we begin to see the fossilized remains of multiple ecosystems encased in rock. The impact of the Mabul during the time of Enosh, along with the erosion that occurred over the first 1,500 years, remains a topic for further research.
After 40 days of intense rainfall during the Mabul, the precipitation gradually slowed. However, the rain did not cease until the construction of the Mishkan, according to Baal HaTurim—nearly 800 years after the beginning of the Mabul. Parshas Vayekel (Exodus 35:1).
The continents continued to drift for another 110 to 160 days after the initial split, with new waves of mud covering the newly formed landmasses. The Earth's surface was wet and muddy. Only after more than a year did Noah and his family exit the Ark. As the mountains rose, massive amounts of water and unsolidified material washed down, carving valleys, canyons, and depositing new sediments—often consisting of more mixed materials than those originally deposited. We can observe such unsorted material in many valleys, including those in Utah, Nevada, and other regions, where further erosion has exposed these layers.

The aftermath of this cataclysm lasted for centuries. In fact, many climatic changes recorded throughout history may have been the result of this total planetary remodeling. After the relative stabilization of the continents, when the Earth’s map resembled its current configuration, the cataclysm continued, but at a much slower pace.
The oceans were still warm, possibly covered with mats of organic material that may have aided the repopulation of the continents. Australia, in particular, likely benefitted, while other continents maintained some terrestrial connections. Thick clouds continued to shroud the sky due to the evaporation of the warm oceans, and volcanic ash further contributed to this cover. As a result, little solar energy penetrated the Earth's surface. However, life began to flourish again, especially near the oceans and large bodies of water trapped on the continents. Precipitation continued on a much larger scale than what we experience today.

​As the oceans cooled due to the lack of warmth from the sun, regions farther from the water began to experience snowfall instead of rain. This snow accumulated over hundreds of years, compacting under its own weight to form ice. In some areas, evaporation outpaced precipitation, leading to the emptying of the Mediterranean basin.

The Ice Age had begun. While we may find some indications of its timing in Divrei Chazal, the evidence remains unclear. Midrash Rabbah suggests that each famine during the times of the Avos was a result of a major climate event. There are indications of human settlements in regions where the ice cap later formed, allowing for a few hundred years of development before the onset of the Ice Age. The Midrash also mentions the disappearance of over 20 nations due to floods and other catastrophes following the Tower of Babel, around the year 1996 from creation.
As the ice level rose on the continents, the ocean level dropped by approximately 400 feet, reconnecting many lands and islands to the continents and enabling migration of animals and people. One such major connection was Beringia, which was not a small bridge as often imagined, but rather a vast expanse of land between Alaska and Siberia.

In regions closer to the oceans, vegetation exploded, and fauna repopulated. Horses, camels, and giant sloths roamed the American continent, alongside bison, which survived the Ice Age. However, many species perished. Why did some species survive while others did not? I am not familiar with any plausible hypothesis for this, but rapid climate changes may have played a role. Entire herds of mammals, including potentially millions of mammoths, may have died from dust storms or been frozen alive while attempting to endure violent storms that swept across the tundra. Evidence supports this theory, with mammoths and other species found preserved in permafrost, some appearing as if they were awaiting discovery in a giant freezer. Mammoth tusks are still being commercially explored for ivory, which is highly valued for sculptural art.
Be'ezrat Hashem, we will continue exploring the further progression of the Mabul in the next installment of this topic.

                                                                                           B-H
In his commentary on the Chumash (the Torah), Rashi explains that the waters of the Flood were not merely ordinary water but were hot—boiling and scalding. This interpretation comes from a Midrashic teaching, found in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 108b) and the Midrash (Bereishis Rabbah 31:5), which suggests that the intensity of the water served as a form of Divine punishment for the wickedness of humanity, making the Flood’s impact even more severe.
While this homiletic aspect of the story of the Flood (Mabul) is important, it raises additional questions: How did the waters of the Flood become hot? And how did this affect the post-Flood climate and geography?
In my primary work posted on the other page of this website, “Chazal on Mabul,” I have broadly outlined the events that took place in the year 1656 after Creation, using the Torah and the teachings of our Sages to build a sequence of events leading up to and during the Flood. While I did not focus on the conditions after the Flood, I hope to dedicate time to researching and building a clearer picture of the world after the Mabul, based on historical material from the Midrash and commentaries.
BeEzras Hashem, I have begun collecting this material, but more time and effort are needed to complete this research. For this current discussion, we will rely on observable phenomena that can be studied scientifically, particularly in the areas of glaciation, the Ice Age, and deglaciation.
I will summarize the events of the Mabul to provide context for the astonishing conclusions we can draw about the Ice Age.

Before the Flood, there was a single landmass surrounded by ocean—what modern geology refers to as "Pangea." Evolutionary geologists recognize this fact through their analysis, and even without scientific expertise, it’s easy to see how the coastlines of Europe, Africa, and the Americas align. The only difference, of course, is the timeline.

​In the timeline presented here, the single supercontinent was inundated by water during the time of Enosh, when a third of the land was flooded, leaving perhaps behind sedimentary deposits. It is also possible that this flooding created internal seas, isolated from the main ocean. The existence of stromatolite fossils in places like Nevada, Wyoming, Texas, and Upstate New York indicates such a scenario. Stromatolites are bacterial colonies that grow in shallow parts of the sea and require significant time to form. I’ve been researching these fascinating organisms for some years, but it’s still too early for me to share definitive conclusions.

For several hundred years before Noah’s Flood, Earth was in a relatively stable condition. Then, in the year 1656, on the 17th of Cheshvan, the continent split apart.
The following map of the oceanic floors shows the grooves carved by the continents as they drifted apart. These grooves can be found on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, as well as in the western part of the Americas, on the Pacific oceanic floor. This may seem surprising, as the Americas were drifting westward, but the hypothesis shared by both creationists and evolutionary geologists is that the old oceanic floor was subducted beneath the American continents, sinking into the Earth's mantle and core.

Evolutionary geologists believe this process took millions of years, while many creationists, including myself, believe the subduction happened rapidly—what is known as the Conveyor Belt Hypothesis. Both groups face challenges with dating methods. For example, instruments used by evolutionists date the oceanic floors as only a few million years old, when they should be hundreds of millions of years old, according to their worldview. From our perspective, however, we see the chain of events occurring much more rapidly.
Recently, oceanic floors have been mapped in great detail, revealing that the ridges and valleys created by the moving continents are still sharp and rugged. If these processes took place over millions of years, one would expect the ocean currents to have eroded and smoothed these features. But that’s not what we observe. This is significant, as water is a powerful eroding agent—not only on the surface of the planet, but also on the ocean floor.
Putting aside the dating methods for now, though this topic certainly deserves its own chapter, there’s compelling recent research that supports the Conveyor Belt Hypothesis proposed by creationists. Seismologists, measuring the frequency of seismic waves passing through the Earth, have discovered chunks of solid material inside the planet’s liquid core. These chunks should have dissolved over millions of years, but they remain intact. This evidence suggests that parts of the old oceanic floor sunk into the core, rapidly subducting along what we know as the subduction zone.

​I suspect that these chunks of antediluvian oceanic floor, twisted and buckled beneath the continents, are responsible for many of the mountain chains, plateaus, and uplifts we see today. As these oceanic floors tumbled beneath the Earth’s crust, they likely caused some mountains to rise, and volcanic areas to develop, at the end and soon after the Mabul. Large extinct volcanoes, found in places like Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, and Idaho, appear to have formed relatively recently. These areas are home to massive calderas and lava fields that look as though they cooled very quickly, and lack of vegetation suggest that it happened rather recently. 

​While this digression may seem off-topic, it helps to understand the general dynamics of the Mabul and the post-Flood period.
But let’s go back to the beginning of the Mabul.
As the continents split, exposing the hot mantle beneath, massive volcanic activity likely ensued. Rav Miller theorizes that volcanoes erupted. However, compared to the giant fractures created during the Mabul, volcanic eruptions are relatively small. I’d like to draw attention to the Atlantic Ocean, which is particularly relevant to our discussion. It clearly shows the contours of the gigantic split that began along what we now call the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, forming an "S" shape halfway between the Americas, Europe, and Africa.

When the oceanic waters began to flow into these massive fractures, an unprecedented amount of evaporation occurred. It’s not unreasonable to propose that the sky became opaque due to volcanic ash, shrouding the Earth and cooling the atmosphere. (Please see the Chazal page for more on this.) Obviously, the steam and aerosols in the atmosphere didn’t escape Earth’s gravity, as life on the planet was clearly restored after the Mabul. But the changes to the atmosphere, although difficult to pinpoint, could be significant.
As per the words of Chazal, the waters of Mabul were hot. We can begin to understand how this occurred by analyzing the scenario provided here. But how hot were the waters, and what was the temperature of the mantle at the time? While I cannot offer precise calculations, scientists with more expertise in this area would need to create models to address these questions.
What we can understand, however, is why the Arctic Ocean was not frozen, while parts of North America and Eurasia were covered in ice. We can also explain why regions closer to the oceans never froze, while ice formed over the interiors of continents. This also helps us understand why we find fossils and skeletal remains of warm-climate animals in places like Great Britain, or why large herds of grass-eating animals, including multiple species of elephants, once roamed Alaska, northern Canada, and Siberia.

​This is an expert from simple google search:
Mammal fossils found in Great Britain 

• Hippopotamus: A lower jaw fossil from the Pleistocene era was found in Norfolk
• Giant armadillo: A scute fossil from the Pleistocene era was found in the UK
• Llama: A tooth fossil from the Pleistocene era was found in the UK
• Tapir: A tooth fossil from the Pleistocene era was found in the UK
• Mammal foot bones: Foot bones from the Pleistocene era were found in the UK

Pleistocene era in evolutionist period is aligned with few hundred years after the Noah’s Mabul.

Additionally, it sheds light on how camels and horses arrived on the American continent long before Europeans brought them back after they had become extinct during the interceding time. This also explains why the Sahara was lush and full of vegetation after the Mabul, why human settlements thrived in places like Doggerland (now submerged beneath the North Sea), and why the Mediterranean Sea was lower in elevation before filling up sometime after the Mabul, most likely around the time of the Exodus from Egypt

​I hope that, with Hashem help, I will be able to share more material on these facts in future essays, as I still have much research to process and organize into something truly enlightening.

                                                                                        B-H
​​While growing up in communist-run Poland, I attended public school. Private schools were nonexistent, but the level of education was surprisingly high, especially when compared to contemporary American public schools. This isn't the place for a political discussion—that's reserved for a different blog. For those familiar with my writings there, it’s clear that I despise totalitarian regimes, including communism. However, I want to give credit where credit is due.
The curriculum was designed in such a way that there was no doubt in our minds that the Earth had existed for millions of years. In subjects like physics and chemistry, the Big Bang theory was already being taught in the 1970s, and the spontaneous assembly of atoms into complex compounds was considered an established fact. (Subatomic particle physics, however, hadn’t yet emerged as a field of study at the time.)
In biology, we learned about the spontaneous emergence of life from inorganic compounds, with some “magic” amino acids evolving into living organisms. Life then progressed naturally into more sophisticated forms, ultimately culminating in the evolution of primates into Homo sapiens. History lessons painted the story of humanity as the final chapter of this process.
We were presented with images of early Homo sapiens hunting mammoths, with their families processing the animals' meat, bones, and skin while surrounded by ice. It all made sense to us. It created a comprehensive picture of human origins, and no one questioned the finer details of this process.

The presence of ice was something we understood intuitively. Although central Europe has a moderate climate, the evidence of past glaciation was clear in the 1970s. Erratic boulders were scattered everywhere, especially in the northern parts of Poland. Huge stones sat on flat land, near lakes, ponds, and swamps. There were no mountains around to explain where these boulders had come from. Yet, by looking at the pictures of the Scandinavian mountains, it seemed obvious that the boulders had traveled from there, across the Baltic Sea, transported by glaciers from hundreds of kilometers to the north.

​Interestingly, we have similar erratic boulders here in the U.S. and Canada, including in New York State. Perhaps the most well-known among my readers is the Indian Rock in Ramapo, NY, located along Route 59 between Monsey and Suffern. 

Reflecting on my earlier life, I must admit that I firmly believed in the concept of evolution—so much so that even after I became a Hasidic Jew, I tried to reconcile the evolutionary narrative with the Biblical account of creation. How I managed to do this is a subject for another time. Those of us who attempt such reconciliations often find creative ways to merge seemingly disparate views in our minds.
However, it wasn’t until I began traveling through the American West—visiting the Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, and deserts between these mountain ranges—that my perspective shifted. I began to see that our planet is far younger than I had been led to believe. I no longer felt the need to engage in intellectual gymnastics to harmonize science with my belief system. I found that belief in evolution is more a religious worldview than a scientific one.

Visiting the Grand Canyon, the deserts of Utah, Nevada, and Wyoming, and the exposed rock layers in nearby mountain ranges, I saw clear evidence of a massive catastrophe. The layers of rock seemed to tell the story of mud and debris deposited in rapid succession. The number of dead animals and plants encased in those rocks brought to mind the biblical description of Noah's Flood. The uplift of these rock layers and the formation of mountains also reminded me of the verse from Psalms that describes such events occurring as a result of a global catastrophe.
For some time, however, I struggled to fit the Ice Age into this timeline. The changes the Earth underwent since its creation seemed not long enough, and I couldn’t immediately reconcile these two events - Mabul and Ice Age.

​The erratic boulders, lakes, ponds, and swamps left behind by glaciers, as well as the visible glacial scratches on rocks near my location, like those in Minnewaska State Park and Bear Mountain—were undeniable evidence of the Ice Age.
Traveling through Montana, the Dakotas, Minnesota, and even New York, I observed significant differences in the topography. In certain areas, rugged hills and rock formations gave way to gentler slopes. It was as if something had crushed, smashed, and smoothed the rocks, creating rolling hills instead of sharp rock edges.

​Other evidence, such as Scabland channels in Washington State and the Finger Lakes in New York, further confirmed the Ice Age's existence. Similar features could be found along the northern shores of the Great Lakes in Ontario, Canada. Then there are coastal lines in Missoula, Montana, and upstate New York. Niagara Falls and the massive whirlpools in Pennsylvania also fit into this puzzle.

​Another thing I noticed during my travels is that many canyons—like those I visited in the American West—showed giant basins upstream of the rivers that now flow through them. These canyons were clearly formed by the overflow of ancient lakes. At some point, these lakes swelled rapidly and broke through natural barriers, sometimes even trough uplifted plateaus (like the Kaibab Plateau). This surge of water must have been caused by an unprecedented series of precipitations or the rapid melting of glaciers. For a future article, I hope to explore this topic in more detail.

​At that point, there was no doubt in my mind that the Ice Age had occurred. But where did it fit into the 5,760-year timeline of creation?
BeEzras Hashem, I began to gather more information and conduct deeper research. Eventually, I pieced together a consistent and harmonious narrative that aligned with the insights our sages have left us in our collective memory.
The most surprising discovery came when I examined more contemporary maps of the Ice Age glaciers. These new maps were different from the ones I had studied in school or read about in books. While older maps showed glaciers descending from the north, covering much of the northern hemisphere, the newer maps depicted a different scenario. On these maps, parts of Siberia, Alaska, and even the Arctic Ocean were free of ice! (See maps.)
This new view initially didn’t make sense to me. 

​How could we determine which regions were covered by ice and which were not? I continued to analyze the evidence—erratic boulders, ice marks on rocks, and postglacial bodies of water—the answer became clear. More than that – Moraines, both terminal and lateral are strong indicators of glacial deposits, and we can recognize them in valleys carved by today’s glaciers.
In any place where we can identify these features, we can confidently assert that glaciers once existed there. Where such features are absent, it’s clear that no glaciation occurred.

​                                                                                                         B-H
​By Matys Weiser
I feel as though I am bursting with excitement over my discovery of marine fossils in what is purported to be a vast, fossilized desert of Navajo sandstone. However, the reality is that the shifting identification of the origins of this stone carries significant implications. There is no point in the timeline of creationist geology where such a desert could be situated. If it were indeed a desert, it would pose a serious problem for those of us who accept the Young Earth model of our planet's existence.
I must reiterate that this would not have any consequences for our faithful lives as Torah observants, as there could be various explanations for the existence of what appears to be a massive desert in prehistoric times. However, since this is not a theological article, I will refrain from elaborating further. The existence of such a desert in this geological layer, dating to the late Jurassic period, would present significant challenges for Young Earth Creationism, but not for Judaism.
If, however, it is demonstrated to evolutionists that they are mistaken in their worldview of old Earth, they would face serious difficulties in negating the concept of rapid creation. Proving that a one-year-long remodeling of our planet occurred during Noah’s Mabul would be detrimental to atheistic or agnostic ideologies.
The issue of Navajo Sandstone is not decisive but is very significant in this ideological struggle. Most geological layers recognized by evolutionary geologists are wet deposits, formed by some kind of sea, a massive river, a delta, a lagoon, or a sizable lake that, after drying, became cemented to varying degrees of hardness or sand layers. Only a few, like Navajo sandstone, are classified as aeolian deposits, meaning they originated as dry sand. Only later did this sand become wet, and after the addition of a cementing agent, it petrified into the stone we see today.
In my view, there is no doubt that Navajo Sandstone is, in fact, a wet deposit mixed with marine fossils, and the original material from which the stone is composed was neither dry nor a desert. There are other similar strata, such as Wingate sandstone and Entrada sandstone, also designated as aeolian. 
In our previous article on this topic, I discussed the location of Wingate sandstone, which is situated in the same stratigraphic position as the clearly wet deposit of Moenave Sandstone. Entrada sandstone remains a subject of ongoing research.
Personally, I am convinced that these strata deposits also have a wet origin; if proven as such, little evidence would remain to support the hypothetical millions of years of deserts conceived in evolutionary thought.
I will share some new pictographic and video material from the kelp fossil location within Navajo sandstone in Zion National Park, as well as other marine fossils from the same canyon, including sponges and various seaweeds I have discovered on many hikes since my initial visit several years ago.

Another theory posits that a lake existed where animals walked along the banks, leaving footprints. The question remains: where does the covering layer come from? Most readers have likely walked on a beach and know that even small waves can wash away footprints within minutes, and without waves, the shape of a footprint does not survive for more than a few hours. If those animals were indeed walking on a beach, and some unknown type of flash flood preserved the tracks, there must have been a significant number of those animals and many beaches, as we have numerous preserved footprints in Navajo and similar sandstones. I present only a few locations, often just a few miles apart, to illustrate my point.
Another significant issue with this hypothetical desert environment is the necessity of vegetation to sustain these creatures. If larger beasts consumed smaller ones, the smaller ones also needed sustenance. Unless the food chain was short and circular, there is simply no evidence of any type of food sufficient to support the entire ecosystem.

What I see in these tracks and locations suggests a very temporary environment. There is no land vegetation because it had no time to grow, and the vegetation from the original habitat of the animals was likely uprooted and deposited elsewhere, possibly where the waves of Mabul transported the material. Unlike animals, trees do not walk. The clumps of vegetation embedded in the Navajo sandstone resemble marine vegetation that has been uprooted, clumped, and deposited among the sands of mud waves coming from various directions, laden with volcanic material.
Another argument for the rapid deposition of mud is that the strata layers containing dinosaur footprints are usually not the same as those where their bones are found. I am aware of only partial skeleton remains of a sauropod found in Navajo sandstone; however, many species left their footprints, and the number of track sites is abundant.
“The Seitaad ruessi fossil is articulated, meaning that the bones had not moved from life positions, so they were probably held in place for some time by soft tissues during burial. But a few partially disassociated limb bones suggest the animal was dead before burial. The science of determining the details of fossilization is called taphonomy, and such study adds considerable depth to understanding the landscapes and lifestyles behind fossil remains.
Other previously described fragmentary sauropodomorph fossil remains were found in Northern Arizona’s Navajo Sandstone. One find, MNA 7233, included portions of tail vertebrae, remains of pubic bones, a partial right tibia, both articulated feet and several articulated belly ribs. Another partial sauropodomorph from the Navajo Sandstone, UCMP 82961, consists of two cervical vertebrae and cervical ribs, an articulated left hand, fragments of the right hand several foot bones, and fragments of the shoulder girdle. “
(Utah Friends of Paleontology website)

​It is important to note that reconstructions of complete skeletons of these animals typically do not originate from a single specimen. Skeletal remains are often collected from clumps of mixed bones, indicating that most of the animals from which the bones come were dead and dismembered when they became mixed with bones of other animals, whether of the same or different species. Paleontologists can often reconstruct entire skeletons from different animals of the same size or from remains of the same species but of varying sizes. If other bones were preserved, it is possible to reconstruct an entire skeleton by resizing the bones of another animal. In many museums, these skeletons are artificial copies of original bones. In the early days of paleontology, original bones were often part of reconstructions, with missing parts filled in with artificially created bones.
I have seen such an example in a museum in Bismarck, ND, where a dinosaur skeleton labeled Edmontosaurus was displayed. However, in Montana, it is referred to as Maiasaura, and I have seen it in Canada under yet another name. A simple Google search of both names will reveal no major discrepancies. Edmontosaurus is known to have walked on four limbs, yet it was reconstructed as bipedal—walking on two legs—because that was the prevailing trend at the time of reconstruction. When I inquired about this issue, the custodian informed me that the skeleton was largely composed of artificial bones, as only a portion of it was original. The bones were later painted to create a uniform appearance, and there is no documentation indicating which bones are original and which are not. Sorting real bones from artificial ones would be costly and potentially damaging to the original specimens, so Edmontosaurus will remain in its current pose for the foreseeable future.

​Neither I nor specialists in the field of Young Earth Creationism have a definitive answer regarding which geological strata represent the beginning of Mabul. One significant difference between Christian scientists and someone like me, who has access to Mesoira, a Jewish non-scriptural body of tradition, is their lack of crucial information on the topic.
The main issue is that we possess knowledge about the Flood of Enosh, which, after submerging a third of the original continent created in six days, likely left some deposits on the Earth's surface. I suspect that the Great Unconformity, clearly visible in the Grand Canyon, indicates the boundary between deposits from the first, partial Flood and the total catastrophe of Noah’s Mabul.

​If, as some agree, Mabul began during the Triassic deposits, the Jurassic period is significantly later—weeks, perhaps months, into Mabul. By this time, most life had already been annihilated and washed down to the lower basins of the Antediluvian continent (Rashi) or to the shores of oceans. Organic remains in many of these locations transformed under heat and pressure, forming fossil fuels—coal and crude oil. Some animals, however, like those that left their footprints in the late Jurassic wet sands, likely survived for a while, instinctively moving to higher elevations during the flood. 

I will mention a theory developed by some creationists that in North America, many of these animals migrated toward the center of the new landmass, known today as Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, the Dakotas, and central Canadian provinces, where dinosaur remains are predominantly found. The extensive boneyards of various species are being discovered across a range that extends from Dinosaur National Monument to northern Montana and Alberta.

​I am aware of dinosaur track sites in Texas, Oklahoma, Connecticut, California, and Yukon Territory—just from the locations I have personally documented. There is much more to research and many other topics to explore. May Hashem bless us with the time and resources to continue this work.

​​                                                                                                                                                          B-H
By Matys Weiser
In previous articles we explain formation of sedimentary layers forming Strata visible in many mountainous regions of the Earth.
In the second article we briefly explained the process of formation of Fossils.
In the third article we take particular look into commonly and wrongly designated as aeolian (dry dessert) source of Navajo Sandstone.
Area of the United States named Colorado Plateau with its canyons including the Grand Canyon is especially a natural show of its beauty but also gives the possibility to see what lies beneath our feet.

​Colorado Plateau geologic uplift raised layers of strata and water did the rest. Sometimes buckled and twisted and sometimes horizontally straight for hundreds of miles geological layers were washed away by mass of water and then eroded due to extensive precipitation.
All of this allowed us to see a cross section of thousands of feet of sedimentary deposits.
In the Grand Canyon alone we are able to see more than a mile of not only sedimentary deposits but also deep cut through the basement rocks ("V" shape bottom part of the canyon) forming foundations for later deposits.
The awesome splendor of the Canyon is a show of G-d’s sense of beauty but if we learn the language of the rocks as John Wesley Powel said, we can read and understand the history of our planet.

​The unique and vast beauty of the region doesn’t end in the Grand Canyon, nor the layers of sedimentary rocks. Bended down in gigantic monocline they expose another several thousand feet of strata in the Grand Staircase of Escalante subregion of the Colorado Plateau. Zion and Bryce National Parks are part of those giant geological steps of cliffs spreading through hundreds of miles of desert and mountains.
Somewhere in the center of the Plateau, not too far east from Bryce National Park, Kodachrome State Park is another exceptional place to visit for its beauty. Kodachrome Basin is also a place of geological formations called Sand Pipes.
On a family trip almost 20 years ago, we attempted to drive Cottonwood Canyon Road from the north direction. We stopped to see the highest natural arch in the world – Grosvenor Arch. Few miles further south we have to turn back. Our vehicle would probably make the first wash crossing if not for the weight of it. Five persons and food for five persons for several weeks of travels. It was not easier to find kosher food those days in the area…

​On the way out of the Cottonwood Road I noticed interesting rock formations cutting through the horizontal strata at 90 degrees angle, cutting all of the visible layers. It took many years until I found the time to walk around the park despite the fact that I was camping there several times.

​Sand Pipe formation can be included to the broader family of Dikes, usually magmatic injectates penetrating rock formations under tremendous pressure from beneath. Hot magma flowed up filling and expanding fractures in Igneous and sedimentary rock layers, forming lines of foreign rock often causing metaphorization of surrounding host rocks. Beautiful examples of such geological activity can be seen in another show of nature in Gunnison Black Canyon in Colorado.

​The other common sand injectates are Mud Cracks. What is considered by some as fill-up of other material from above in the dried mud cracks, some geologists postulate that those much smaller than previously mentioned injectates were pushed into mud layer from above under the pressure of the weight of new material cumulating directly above what is considered dried mud but in fact it was still wet layer of mud now with new mass of sediment penetrating from above.

With G-d help we hope to come back to the topic of alleged dry mud cracks in the future as the difference between an entirely wet model of strata or wet cumulating and drying consecutively, is crucial for our framework of understanding the planet's past.
Sand pipes, the main subject of this article, are made from much softer material than classic dikes although they are usually raised from beneath under the pressure of material collecting above. 
In some cases, material in the pipes comes from close surrounding rocks or rather wet material within which the pipes were formed. They don’t form branches as classic dikes but rather are shooting straight up through the layers of host rock.
“Clastic pipes can form by the diapiric rise of plastic sediment, by fluid (water or gas) escape and associated slurry intrusion or foundering, by collapse accompanying or following the removal of underlying material, and by the filling of pipe-shaped cavities.” US Geological Survey 1808L.
In Kodachrome State Park and its direct vicinities there are 67 counted Sand pipes. Some of them standing alone as the encompassing host rock layers eroded, some of them entirely or partially embedded in the surrounding host strata.

​The flow of the material in this area is recognized as traveling from lower layers of strata in the upper direction.
Most of the pipes are crossing up the horizontal strata in almost vertical lines. Some of them slightly bending as they probably found less resistive material while being injected up. Most of them are round or almost round in diameter. The longest or rather tallest of the towers is more than 170 ft high. The thickest of them is some 50 feet in diameter. The majority of the pipes, however, are not of such a big size and especially those still partially embedded in the host rock can be just a few feet in diameter.
Some of the pipes contain broken angular pebbles while others may have carbonized wood.

​“Any suggestion for mechanism must consider the timing of the intrusions. Hannum (1980) made no attempt to date the intrusives other than to note that the majority of the pipes cut or are encased in the Gunsight Butte Member of the Entrada Sandstone. Hannum further stated that these sandstone intrusives were not observed in the Winsor Member of the Carmel Formation (that is lower/earlier deposit /MW/). Hannum's observation that limited exposure of the pipe hosting units, differential erosion, and restrictive access precludes an accurate assessment of the pipe distribution. Hannum (1980) stated that the base of any one pipe is not exposed but also suggests that the material making up the intrusives came from the lower part of the Winsor Member and the Paria River Member of the Carmel Formation. Hornbacher (1984) made many of the same observations as Hannum but offers a more detailed suggestion as to the timing of the intrusives. Hornbacher 1984) stated that one of the pipes penetrates the Escalante member of the Entrada Sandstone there by dating the intrusion later than that member. Hornbacher further states that one pipe had a convoluted, massive, tan-brown conglomerate at its top. By comparing pebble counts and slew analysis of this conglomerate with conglomerates collected from two units of the Plio-Pleistocene conglomerate Hornbacher concluded that the intrusions occurred after the deposition of the lower conglomerate unit, the channel conglomerate, but before the deposition of the upper conglomerate unit, the sheet conglomerate. This allows the area to be saturated with water from the river or rivers that transported the cobbles and finer clasts that make up the Plio-Pleistocene conglomerate. While these sediments were saturated a movement on the Paunsaugunt fault generated an earthquake with sufficient energy to mobilize saturated sediments from the underlying units namely the Paria River and Winsor Members as well as contributions from the Thousand Pockets Tongue of the Page Sandstone.

​“Hannum (1980) suggested that the pipes and dikes are the product of a cold water springs that carried the fine} sand from below and made the pipes particularly the smaller ones. Hannum also suggests that an earthquake could have liquified already water-bearing units and the resulting injection would cause these structures to come about. The cold water spring suggestion may serve to explain the smaller pipes but the presence of cobbles and gravel within the pipe is difficult to explain through a cold water spring mechanism. Hornbacher (1984) discussed several mechanisms that range from some type of rapid loading of sediments that would cause entrapped water bearing sediments to eventually expel these water rich sediments into the overlying host rocks in a diapiric style structure to having an earthquake trigger intrusion of water rich sediments in a liquefaction style of mechanism. Hornbacher (1984) favored the earthquake triggered mechanism because the intrusives are closely related to the two small fault traces that lie just north of Shepard's Point. Hornbacher stated that the intrusives are not brecciated or rotated in the lower portion of a monocline and, according to his preferred mechanism, the water saturated environment required for the intrusion event was available near an ancestral Paria River (Hornbacher, 1984)” “Geology of Kodachrome Basin State Park, Utah” Jame L. Baer and Robert H. Steed

​Hannum’s proposition is proven incorrect by all geologists undertaking research on the subject subsequently.
Hornbacher suggests that water moving Plio/Pleistocene deposits laid above Entrada SandStone, somehow saturated 150 million of years of solid deposits and with some other mechanism, possibly earthquake, those deposits become liquid again. This in turn allowed the injectates to flow up. After that all the rocks solidified again.
This theory is self-evidently preposterous.
Authors provide their own theory:
“While there is some merit to the mechanism as proposed by Hornbacher (1984) we think that it is much more complicated than the data indicate. Our proposed mechanism much simpler and meets a critical factor that Hornbacher's model ignores, namely the time interval from deposition of the Jurassic units in question and the Plio-Pleistocene intrusion event. If one approximates the age of the Carmel Formation at 155 to 160 million years and the Plio-Pleistocene conglomerates deposited 1 to 2 million years ago then the units from which the pipe making material came were largely dormant for 150 million years or more. Another concern is the need to saturate the Jurassic rocks at this late time in order to make them mechanically more susceptible to earthquake-initiated intrusion. It may be that the timing of the intrusion as proposed by Hornbacher is driven more by the earthquake part of the mechanism than any other factor. In our model the Plio-Pleistocene conglomerates are not considered to be important as time constraints.” (Ibidem)
Just ignore major part of Hotnbacher’s detailed research and data provided.
“The slurry, in some places, contained sufficient amounts of organic matter to reduce the iron compounds in the host rocks as the slurry injected and often times scoured its way. Hannum (1980) reported the finding of pieces of carbonized wood in some dikes. This fossil wood, along with other organic matter, from sabhka sediments produced the reducing slurry. The presence of large blocks found in some of the pipes can be explained by the scouring and buoyancy associated with the rising slurry.” (Ibidem)
In other words, soft, muddy matter made it true through the rock because for millions of years it contained organic material.
One preposterous theory replaced by another even more preposterous.

​As we read above, it is postulated but not proven that pipes originate from Paria River member or Carmel formation which according to geologist was wet environment when deposited. Then pipes are cutting through or some of them originate in Winsor member of Carmel formation, also designated as originally wet deposits.
After that, the pipes are or were embedded in 550 ft of Entrada sandstone of marine origins according to the latest designation as in previous decades, Entrada was previously considered of aeolian origins. (US Geological Survey 1808L)
It is self-understood that wet/soft deposits are necessary not only as a source of the injectites but also for the medium which injectates are injected through.
According to old earth and evolutionary geologists the pipes soft liquid material would have to push through the 150 million of years of deposits. Although all the deposits which the pipes are cutting through are recognized as originally wet deposits, it is also recognized that after drying they hardened in a very short time. Even in a wet environment the muddy deposit hardened quickly depending on the amount of cementing minerals and pressure of material collected above.
Baer and Steed tend to ignore the Hornbacher observation of partial penetration of the Pleistocene deposit, citing as the major problem the hardening host rocks over the period of 150 million of years.
Their conclusion is that sand injectates ended in the upper Entrada sandstone of the Jurassic era, which those deposits would have to remained in diagenetic stage i.e., wet/soft, for just 14 to 15 million of years.
Reduction of the age of the deposits which the clastic infusion of the pipes must travel to only 10% of original 150.000.000 to 15.000.000 is far from feasible explanation of liquid or semiliquid character of part of Carmel formation and entire Entrada formation for such prolonged time.
Between the Entrada sandstone and Pleistocene conglomerates right above, we have obviously large unconformity. The rest of Jurassic, Cretaceous and most Cenozoic rocks are missing.
And if they were there above before they eroded, the pressure created by those deposits would lithify the deposits where the pipes are cutting through.
“These air-fall ash deposits introduce more silica and provide lavender to red colors. A thickness of 110 feet (34 m) was measured by Hornbacher (1984). Thompson and Stokes (1970) described a subtle but significant unconformity that they thought marked the top of the Escalante Member. The Upper Jurassic Curtis and the Summerville Formations typically overlie the Entrada Sandstone and are found in the general area, but these formations are missing near KBSP because of erosion prior to deposition of the Henrieville Sandstone.” (Ibidem)

One of the regions rich with sand pipes is San Juan Basin in New Mexico.
“Clastic pipes occur throughout much of the Phanerozoic strata of the Colorado Plateau and provide a unique opportunity to test the validly of various deformation and triggering mechanism hypotheses in the context of their tectono-stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental settings. Pipes dominantly occur in Jurassic strata (…) The greatest geographic concentrations of pipes occur in three trends: (1) a northeast trend from the Lake Powell to Moab areas of southern and southeastern Utah, (2) an east–west trend in northern Arizona within and north of the Grand Canyon, and (3) a west-northwest–east-southeast trend along Interstate 40 west of Albuquerque, New Mexico.” “Clastic pipe characteristics and distributions throughout the Colorado Plateau: Implications for paleoenvironment and paleo seismic controlsF. Wheatley , M.A. Chan , D.A. Sprinkel “
“At San Juan Basin Lupton, the Cow Springs occupies the entire interval from the top of the Entrada to the base of the Morrison.”
“The full vertical extent of a pipe is nowhere indisputably exposed. The original tops of almost all pipes have been removed by recent erosion, and almost all pipes extend beneath the present outcrop surface” US Geological Survey 1808L.
It is safe to assume that Pipes, if indeed originating in Paria member of Carmel formation, are cutting Entrada sandstone and are continuing through the deposits of middle Jurassic Cow Spring formation and at least part of late Jurassic Morison formation.
In fact, article in US Geological Survey 1808L asserts:
“Although considerable evidence exists for relatively early pipe formation, we have seen little evidence to support the conclusion of Schlee (1963) and Moench and Schlee (1967) that the pipes in what is now called the Wanakah Formation formed contemporaneously with Wanakah deposition. They cited thickness changes in beds adjacent to pipes in the Horse Mesa Member of the Wanakah as suggesting deposition in sags around pipes, but the evidence of that type that we have seen is restricted to the Morrison Formation. Contacts of sets of crossbeds in the Horse Mesa Member of the Wanakah Formation and in the Cow Springs Sandstone are, for the most part, remarkably even and parallel and do not suggest local sagging of the depositional surface contemporaneous with pipe growth. Probably most of the pipes formed during Morrison time.”
That adds few, however insignificant, millions of years when parts of middle and late Jurassic rocks would have to remain liquified.
“A prelithification origin of the pipes is suggested by the fact that drag folding of beds adjacent to the ring faults bounding the pipes involves considerable stretching and thinning of beds. Convolute folding of beds within a few pipes also implies that the sediment was unlithified.” US Geological Survey 1808L

​ The content of the clastic pipes indicates that much of the material inside the pipes is contemporary to the material of surrounding rocks. Authors of above survey suggest creation of the pipes happened while Morison formation was deposited. This is of course, if we disregard again evidence provided by Hornbacher placing the geological event causing the formation of clastic pipes in Plio/Pleistocene.
We can state in definite terms that the existence of the Sand Pipes crossing several layers of Strata dated as millions of years old creates an unsolvable query for evolutionists and Old Earth creationists.
So far, all the attempts to explain the formations of Sand Pipes are ignoring certain laws of physics and chemistry or ignoring parts of data.
We are far from using this single subject as the proof for Young Earth creationism and Flood model of Earth geology, however, undeniably, existence of Sand Pipes fits into this model.
If most of the geological deposits were laid as waves of mud, mixtures or antediluvian vegetation, marine and terrestrial, volcanic deposits mixed with water; all the deposits involved in creation of the Sand Pipes were wet and pliable sometime within the year of Mabul Flood and perhaps years after.
In such a scenario, organic matter trapped under layers of sediment would be organically or chemically altered producing sizable gas or organic liquid bubbles. Either way, if bubbles were gas or liquid, under the pressure of material above, they would move upward creating vertical channels immediately filled up with material traveling along from the source layer of liquefied strata. In some of the pipes the gas would resort to the sandy material in the layers which the gas would travel through as it seems to be a case in many sand pipes from New Mexico.

​In my recent travels I spotted what looks like a sand pipe in Goblins State Park in Utah.

​Goblins are formed in Entrada Sandstone. Right above red almost purple goblins, lays a green/gray strata layer of Curtis formation. Within the red rocks of Entrada Goblins, there are few hills seemingly made of material of Curtis formation shaped as haystack. It is difficult to hypothesize that those greenish hills are remnants of eroded sand pipes, but one formation looks like classic sand pipe and is made of material resembling that of Curtis formation. If this is the case, it would be a sand pipe filled up with material from higher rather than lower or parallel layers. At this moment I have no theory for the mechanism of creation of a sand pipe filled with material from above other than a fast moving up gas bubble creating a vertical channel in partially solidified strata and then softer material of Curtis formation filling that channel immediately. 

​As already said, I claim no proof for young Earth geology just from this one subject of Sand pipes, however lack of complementary explanation from evolutionary geologists and perfect solution for their creation in Mabul Flood scenario, makes sand pipes an important issue for our view. 

                                                                                               B-H
By Matys Weiser
​The purpose of this website and blog is to present our understanding of the events surrounding the Mabul, or Noah's Flood. We will explore the statements of Jewish sages, delve into the collective memory of the Jewish nation, and seek reflections of their insights in the geological and geographical realities of our planet. However, it is essential to address the worldview that undermines the narratives conveyed by Jewish sages. Many of the "proofs" put forth by proponents of this perspective are often exaggerated, distorted, or fabricated to create an illusion of undeniable "truth." When faced with opposition, the reaction of believers in this idea is akin to that of Christians confronted with the assertion that the Trinity is merely a poorly constructed fantasy. Similarly, the theory of evolution, which we have discussed, embodies a belief of almost religious significance that conflicts with scientific observation. Nevertheless, this page will focus exclusively on the topic of the Mabul—Flood.
In the following essay presentation, we will demonstrate how scientific theories are manipulated to support the broader theory of an Old Earth, often ignoring plain facts in the process. In this particular article, we will continue our discussion on Navajo Sandstone.
According to Wikipedia: 
“The (Navajo) sandstone was deposited in an arid erg on the Western portion of the
Supercontinent Pangaea. This region was affected by annual monsoons that came about each winter when cooler winds and wind reversal occurred.”
Below we will quote from the official website of Zion National Park where the greatest and most beautiful exposure of the rock formation exists.
“The Navajo Sandstone consists of thick layers of cross-bedded sandstone formed by windblown sand dunes in a vast ancient desert. In the early Jurassic, the climate of the Colorado Plateau dried significantly, creating desert conditions over a broad region. The Navajo Sandstone is the result of the largest known sand desert in the history of our planet, which covered the area of today’s Colorado Plateau and beyond.”
“Diagonal patterns in the Navajo Sandstone are called cross-bedding. Cross-beds are found in modern active sand dunes, but the Navajo Sandstone preserves the history of ancient wind patterns and migrating sand dunes in this vast desert.”
“The ancient sand dunes were similar to dunes in modern deserts, probably reaching several hundred feet at their greatest height. Only the bottom portion of a dune is preserved in the sandstone, but layer upon layer of dunes built up, until the total thickness of the pile of sand grew to be over 2,000 feet thick (although most of this thickness would have been underground).”
“The sand was eventually turned into sandstone due to the pressure from overlying layers, combined with the cementing effects of mineral-laden groundwater. Groundwater containing dissolved minerals–particularly calcium carbonate –percolated through and around the sand grains below the water table, leaving behind calcium carbonate that glued the grains together—turning sand dunes into the Navajo Sandstone.”
“By studying the orientation of cross-beds, geologists can determine the direction of ancient winds.
Cross-beds in the Navajo Sandstone at Zion indicate that the dominant wind pattern during the Early Jurassic was from the north-northwest. A close look at the sandstone reveals fine, well-sorted, and well-rounded sand grains –evidence of a very long journey for this massive pile of quartz sand.”
This summarizes the current scientific perspective. It is important to note that no evidence has been presented to substantiate many of the assumptions regarding the origins of the Navajo sandstone formation. As usual, we will set aside the issue of dating, as it will be the subject of future essays.
What we can agree on is that Navajo sandstone is a mass of quartz grains cemented together, measuring 2,300 feet thick and covering a vast area of the western United States, though it is not always visible on the surface. The observation that sand was deposited from the northwestern direction, as is the case with many formations in the area, is also a point of consensus. The remainder is speculative.
In a previous blog post, we presented evidence of marine fossils embedded in the Navajo sandstone, which cannot be attributed to fossilized vegetation from hypothetical lakes and rivers flowing through this ancient desert, as suggested by evolutionary geologists. We would like to remind readers that the existence of these bodies of water is supposed to explain the dinosaur and other tracks found in the Navajo sandstone.
We are also not aware of any lakes on Earth where kelp grows.
The first video and pictures were taken in the Northern Coyote Buttes section of Vermilion National Monument, located on the border of Utah and Arizona. Accessing this breathtaking location requires a permit from the National Monument Authority. However, thanks to a tremendous blessing, we were able not only to appreciate the beauty that has been imprinted in our psyche but also to discover what appear to be fossils of one of the most delicate creatures found in the waters of oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers—jellyfish.

For comparison, we present images sourced from various websites that depict the jellyfish species inhabiting the cold beaches of the Baltic Sea, as recalled by the author.

The second video was filmed at the Coppermine Trading Post track site, also known as the Moenave Dinosaur tracks, which is situated seven miles west of Tuba City in Navajo Land.

Over the past decade, we have visited the site numerous times, but it was only during this visit that we were informed about the larger jellyfish fossils resting directly atop the dinosaur footprints. Please compare your observations with images of adult warm-water jellyfish.

Interestingly, until just a few weeks ago, the Moenave Track site was classified as a Navajo sandstone formation by paleobiodb.org, and it continues to be defined as such by the database on fossilworks.org.

There seems to be ongoing confusion regarding the location and the formation where the footprints are being discovered. The most plausible explanation, based on the available data and our limited analysis, is that the formation in question is not Navajo sandstone but rather the Moenave formation.
It is important to elaborate on this formation, as it presents a puzzling strata layer situated between the Chinle and Kayenta layers, both of which are characterized by fluvial, or wet, deposits. The Navajo sandstone lies directly above the Kayenta formation.
The Moenave formation is supposedly containing numerous dinosaur tracks alongside marine fossils, which renders our discovery of jellyfish less extraordinary, although we are personally not aware of any other jellyfish findings within this formation.
What adds to the intrigue is the existence of another formation between the Chinle and Kayenta layers, known as the Wingate sandstone, which evolutionary geologists also claim to be an ancient desert.
Refer to the diagrams illustrating the cross-section of these formations for further clarity.

The diagrams clearly illustrate the Moenave formation, situated between the Chinle and Kayenta formations, which is undoubtedly a wet deposit. However, in the same stratigraphic position, we also find supposedly the ancient desert of the Wingate formation.
The details below regarding this formation reveal multiple layers containing a mix of dinosaur tracks and marine life, including fish.

Evolutionary geologists suggest that one deposit formed first, subsequently eroded from certain locations and was replaced by another formation, only to be later covered by the Kayenta mixed beds formation. It is important to note that the Wingate formation is a solid sandstone, closely resembling Navajo sandstone, while the Moenave formation consists of multiple bedding layers akin to the Kayenta formation.
We believe we have sufficiently demonstrated that Navajo sandstone was deposited as wet flows of sand intermingled with marine vegetation, and the notion of a dry deposit is fundamentally flawed. We plan to present additional material in the future to further substantiate our argument.
Given that the Moenave (wet) and Wingate (dry) formations are situated between the Chinle (wet) and Kayenta (wet) formations, we find no compelling reason to accept the unconvincing assumptions regarding any dry genesis in the strata layers of the Colorado Plateau, where these formations are exposed.
 
In our perspective, as passed down through generations, the presence of marine creatures within the cubic miles of sand deposited by the waves of the Mabul is entirely plausible. Furthermore, it is evident that virtually all other formations were deposited in a wet state, one atop the other.

By Matys Weiser                                                                             B-H    
​Before I became more aware of the surrounding world at the age of ten, I was part of the scout movement. Summer vacations were spent at a distant sleepaway camp on the dunes of the Baltic Sea. One of the scout activities involved tracking. Sometime in the middle of the night, our leaders would wake us up, divide us into two groups, and assign one group the task of running away while leaving marks on the path, while the second group had to find those marks and try to catch the first group.
 
On one occasion, I was part of the second group. We began to follow the marks, which were shaped like arrows pointing in the direction the first group had gone. Sometimes the marks were drawn in the dust of the path, and other times they were formed from three sticks or long cones. There was no scientific calculation or deep analysis involved; we instinctively knew that certain configurations on the path were not random, someone had deliberately arranged them.
 
Today, I live in a forested environment, and especially in winter, I can see every morning who has visited my backyard—whether it was deer, foxes, or even a coyote. The marks in the snow are clear. The fact that an animal left them is immediately apparent. Identifying which animal made the mark requires comparing it with our memory of animals and their footprints or some book on the topic.
 
That was a bit of philosophy, and now we will track animals that roamed the Earth some 4,100 years ago—the dinosaurs. Each page of this website begins with a picture of large animals leaving their footprints in the soft ground, which was later covered by another layer of sediment and solidified.

The initial series of photographs was captured along the renowned Paluxy River in Texas. The subsequent image, taken by the author, depicts the footprint of a large mammal, possibly a cat. According to the established evolutionary theory, mammals of this size were not present during the age of dinosaurs. Additionally, there is a well-documented controversy regarding human footprints found alongside dinosaur tracks in the same region. We will revisit this topic in a future essay.

Without a doubt, the marks observed were created by various animals, some of which were larger than any species known today, while others resembled the size of a chicken. These footprints, along with numerous other trace fossils, can be found almost universally across our planet. Notably, some dinosaur footprints have been uncovered in Navajo sandstone, which is intriguing because evolutionary geologists assert that this formation is composed of desert sand, making it challenging for such large creatures to locate food. Furthermore, leaving footprints in desert sand is nearly impossible. Nevertheless, as is often the case, a solution emerged: in those specific areas where dinosaurs roamed, the sand was moist.
 
The process of leaving footprints is quite simple—the surface on which the animal walked must be wet. One theory regarding the preservation of these footprints suggests that after they were imprinted, the ground dried, and another layer of sediment covered the footprints, filling in the impressions. Subsequently, erosion revealed the original footprints embedded in the hard rock. It is also reasonable to accept that, akin to laminated water ripples discussed in a previous essay, a similar process occurred with dinosaurs and other animal footprints—they formed in a wet environment and were later covered by an additional layer of wet mud or sand. Due to the differing silica content of the lower layer, which was typically richer, the two layers did not blend, thereby preserving the footprints beneath the surface.
 
Thus far, we have examined ichnofossils, or trace fossils in simpler terms. In the next section of the essay, we will shift our focus to the fossils themselves.
 
How do once-living organisms transform into fossils? One specific type of fossilization—permineralization—has led to the majority of fossils currently displayed in museums and visitor centers in national and other parks. We will reference Wikipedia, as it articulates the process in the clearest and most comprehensive manner, and we encourage readers to consult the full article on fossils.
The following slideshow presents several contemporary ichnofossils, which are imprints of decayed organic material preserved within the travertine formation at Fossil Creek, Arizona.

How do living organisms transform into fossils? One notable method of fossilization, known as permineralization, accounts for the majority of fossils displayed in museums and visitor centers across national parks and other locations. To better understand this process, we recommend referring to the comprehensive explanation provided by Wikipedia in their article on fossils.
“Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried. The
empty spaces within an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces. This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell.
Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils. For permineralization to occur,
the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death, otherwise decay
commences. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later
details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues.”
As we can see and can foresee, this type of fossilization can happen only in wet environments
and only when an organism is insulted from bacterial and other forms of decay.
We cannot observe or even imitate the process of fossilization in a laboratory, although it happens in some form in rich in minerals waters of geysers.

Fossilization primarily occurs in wet environments and requires that organisms are protected from bacterial decay and other forms of decomposition. While we cannot directly observe or replicate the fossilization process in a laboratory setting, it does occur in mineral-rich waters, such as those found in geysers.
We will present examples of once-living organisms that have been fossilized in the mud waves of the Mabul. We will then closely examine two specific cases where certain facts have been omitted from the textbooks of geology, paleontology, or paleobiology. In 2007, Professor Mary Schweitzer published her groundbreaking discovery of soft tissue in dinosaur bones. However, she faced skepticism from her colleagues in the academic community, as it was deemed impossible for collagen, red blood cells, and nearly 20 other types of soft tissue to survive for 65 million years encased in a fossilized T. rex bone. Here is a quotation from Wikipedia:
“Schweitzer was the first researcher to identify and isolate soft tissues from an ancient fossil bone. The soft tissues are collagen, a connective protein. Amino acid sequencing of several samples have shown matches with the known collagens of chickens, frogs, newts and other animals. Schweitzer has also isolated organic compounds and antigenic structures in sauropod egg shells. With respect to the significance of her work, Kevin Padian, Curator of Paleontology, University of California Museum of Paleontology, has stated – ‘Chemicals that might degrade in a laboratory over a short period need not do so in a protected natural chemical environment…it’s time to readjust our thinking.’
Schweitzer previously announced similar discoveries in 1993. Since then, the claim of discovering soft tissues in ancient fossils has been disputed by some molecular biologists. Later research by Kaye published in PLoS ONE on July 30, 2008, challenged the assertion that the material found was the soft tissue of a Tyrannosaurus. However, a more recent study published in PLoS ONE in October 2010 contradicts Kaye's conclusions and supports Schweitzer's original findings. Evidence for the extraction of short segments of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions. The extraction of proteins, soft tissues, remnant cells, and organelle-like structures from dinosaur fossils has been confirmed.
What is particularly fascinating about this case is that the prevailing dogma was upheld for much longer than just a few years; it persisted for over a decade. The first reports of biological material emerged in 1966, and since then, scientists from around the world have made over seventy reports of similar discoveries from various countries and locations. Here are some notable samples:
- Dinosaur bone collagen; vessels from the Cretaceous, Campanian Gobi Desert, Mongolia, 1966
- Megalosaurus eggshell protein from the Jurassic, Bathonian Rognacian Formation, Southern France, 1968
- Sauropod limb hydroxyproline from the Jurassic, Kimmeridgian Morrison Formation, Colorado, 1968
- Dinosaur proteins and polysaccharides from the Cretaceous, Maastrichtian, 1974
One could argue that there is no conspiracy to conceal this information from the public, given the numerous publications reporting such discoveries. However, these publications are often circulated among a small group of specialists and rarely make their way into popular scientific magazines or broader public discussions. Until Mary Schweitzer demonstrated the presence of biological material in fossils, these discoveries were largely dismissed as contradicting the widely accepted dogma.
Today, that controversy has largely dissipated, as the facts cannot be denied. However, to align with the official dogma of the evolutionary process and timeline, new explanations have been proposed. In simple terms, even if it seems impossible for soft tissue to survive over such an extended period, it has survived, likely due to the increased iron content that somehow preserved the biological material in the fossilized bone. As with any belief system, when one dogma is proven false, a new one is created.

Previously, we mentioned the rock formation known as Navajo sandstone in the context of dinosaur footprints. Now, we will revisit this type of stone and once again quote from Wikipedia.
“The (Navajo) sandstone was deposited in an arid erg on the Western portion of the
Supercontinent Pangaea. This region was affected by annual monsoons that came about each winter when cooler winds and wind reversal occurred.”
​Monsoons might account for the footprints appearing in the wet sand; however, the region remains a desert, where finding any type of food would be quite challenging. During my hikes in the western deserts, I traversed mountains shaped by the erosion of Navajo sandstone. Here are my findings.

In the first image, a fossil resembling a shell is visible. It is important to note that when this shell is encased in limestone, its appearance differs significantly. In this instance, the shell is mixed with sand that contains minimal lime, primarily composed of quartz grains cemented by silica, resulting in less distinct contours of the fossil.

One image depicts a plank or piece of wood embedded in stone, prompting the question of how it arrived in the desert, detached from its original environment. The Navajo sandstone spans 102,300 square miles and reaches thicknesses of up to 2,300 feet in certain areas.
Below some other unidentified fossils found in the same in the same area. 

We invite an explanation for which terrestrial plant, whether in the desert or elsewhere, resembles kelp so closely. Otherwise, we hope that all literature, brochures, displays, and other informational materials will revise the narrative regarding the origins of Navajo sandstone from arid to wet conditions.
 It is noteworthy that the Navajo sandstone and the Wingate formation, located just above it, are among the few formations claimed to have developed in a dry environment, while several others remain officially controversial. Below are a few images of both Navajo and Wingate sandstone.

​More about Navajo sandstone in following essay.

By Matys Weiser                                                                             B-H  ​
Early at night, not so long after the villagers of Huuayyaht, Cowichan and Makah went to sleep,
A powerful earthquake shuddered the coastal land. Those who were able to climb to higher
elevations or their villages and were high enough above the sea level, those mostly survived the cataclysm.
For generations the story was told and preserved in some details till our times.
Not too many hours after that event, a powerful tsunami entered villages of
Tsugaruishi, Kuwagasaki and Ōtsuch.
The first three villages were located on the western coast of the American continent, and three later in Japan.
From the Japanese chronicles we know the exact date of the earthquake which happened thousands of miles away. It was January 26 of 1700, approximately 9.00pm of Pacific time zone. This event Is known as the Cascadia Earthquake.
We also know about this and other similar events from sediment deposited by tsunami waves
which in their flow picked up some material from the sea floor and perhaps some lower lands and dumped the sand and mud in other locations.

​Those tsunamis, although powerful and lethal were like ripples in a pond compared to the gigantic waves overflowing the continents sliding over the softer Earth’s mantle at the time of Mabul.

In the first 40 days of Mabul the opened wounds of the Earth’s crust exposed hot magma which immediately was overflowed with waters from the Pangea’s rivers and lakes. From the Bible we have information about the rivers flowing on the surface of the Pangea, from Midrashic material we have evidence of other bodies of water existing on the antediluvian continent. We also hope to present evidence of such bodies of water in the future from our geological research as we hope to continue the analysis of the stromatolite fossils in the Mason county, Texas.
Terrestrial waters mixed with the flood coming from the sky, after seven days of relatively light rain, rushed toward the lower elevations annihilating all life in the process. Together with life on the surface, the surface itself was stripped from the basement rock which life was originally created upon. All this material was deposited on the lower areas of the land as it is described by Jewish sages.
Oceanic water filled up the cracks between masses of land drifting away, also bringing material from shallower parts of oceanic floor. If our theory about Pangea’s areas below the sea level is valid, the oceanic sediment was deposited in some areas even before land vegetation came there washed away from the heights. The other possibility for earlier marine deposits then terrestrial deposits is  if ocean floor was tectonicly uplifted, water from ocean containing marine life, overflowed continents before some of terrestrial ecosystems were flooded from higher elevations or from different direction of the overflowing currents.

​There is no example of sedimentary rocks in the column of deposits as it is postulated by evolutionary geologists. Different areas of deposits may have different sequences of fossilized life forms, sometimes in opposite order to desired by evolutionary science.
It must be pointed at this moment, that entire assessment of the ages of the rocks comes from the type of so called index fossils embedded in those rocks, in particular strata layer. The age of the fossils is assessed in turn from the type of rock that the fossils are embedded in.
The circular way of thinking of those who use those methods of dating is truly ridiculous and shocking indeed.
In fact there are two different geological columns worked by geologists - lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic. First reflecting more or less real position of the layers of strata and the other reflecting postulated sequence of layers according to the evolutionary advance of life forms.
Since nowhere on planet Earth the entire column is present it leaves a lot of space for imagination to work in process of creating biostratigraphic column.
If we put aside chemical and radioactive methods of the rock age evaluations, all is based on the general assumption that organisms looking more primitive than other must be older. The problem with this philosophy is that there is nothing primitive about even single cell organisms.
Even more problems come with the fact that some fossils of so called sophisticated, i.e. evolutionary advanced organisms are being found together in the strata supposedly representing the early stages of evolution. We hope to come back with examples of such deposits sometime in the future.
The biggest problem with strata layers for evolutionist, is the fact that even in general, sections representing supposedly early ages, are overlaying deposits from supposedly late periods of depositions.
One of such examples is the Chief Mountain in Glacier National Park in Montana, where Algonkian limestone containing Precambrian “primitive” creature Beltina Danai, is resting on the top of Cretaceous strata which supposedly formed after the dinosaur extinction. Cretaceous represents much more sophisticated life forms and as such it is impossible for this layer to be deposited before the so called Cambrian explosion, if there would be any value in evolutionists dating methods.
Another example of misplaced strata is Heart Mountain on the eastern edges of Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. Here in turn, post Cambrian Paleozoic strata which dating starts supposedly 500.000.000 years ago, lays on the top of Eocene deposits which are “only” 60.000.000 years old.
Needless to say, as in the previous case, Paleozoic fossils represent “unsophisticated“ forms of life while Eocene fossils contain basically ecosystems known to exist in some areas of the Earth today.
First of all, as it was pointed, there is nothing primitive about the lifeforms considered as primitive. Many if not most of those organisms are present in our environment and complexity of those organisms require much faith to belief that they spontaneously emerged from primordial aminoacidic soup.
The Second challenge for those who share this kind of belief, is the sheer fact of misplaced strata.
Those two cases represent the most profound and accessible examples of what is called in the
evolutionary geology – overthrust strata. It is possible that mass of land with older deposits was pushed on the top of the younger deposits at the second half year of the Mabul when the fragments of drifting earth crust were colliding, up-warded and perhaps over thrust in catastrophic process. If this is the case of two above examples is still subject of fuhrer investigation. 
Another issue is the Eocene strata postulated by creationist geology as postdiluvian. However in our mind, it is possible that some Eocene and Tertiary in general, ecosystems were fossilized before Mesozoic and even Paleozoic layers were deposited. B-H we will come back to this topic.

The story of the Mabul preserved in memory of the Jewish people explains the geological layers in a way much closer to common sense. Yes, there is an element of supernatural, but we don’t deny it.
In part explicitly, in part as logical consequence, much of the geological strata as it can be observed covering almost 80% of the earth on the surface of land and shallower parts of the sea, can be explained as remnants of the deposition of life forms, mud, sand, volcanic ash and basalt, by the cataclysm of the Mabul - global flood. We also can not forget, that even at the time of the creative work of six days, when so called laws of nature were in process being established, even then - land emerged from the water. Vast majority of sedimentary, most of Precambrian rocks, have no fossils whatsoever, and thus can be and most probably is, a result of the third day of Maasey Beraishis - Creation.

​In the essay on the page “Chazal on Mabul”, we documented that the climate of the antediluvian world was much better for all forms of life. Allowing 6 feet long centipedes, oversized nonflying birds, oversized flying creatures, large animals which some of them are still represented in postdiluvian ecosystem to exist, and some extinct before or after the Mabul.
The size of man was also much bigger as it is stated in the words of the Scriptures and Oral Tradition.
Man’s remains did not survive the dissolving waters of the Mabul. Fossils of other organisms are represented in many layers of strata, sometimes together with also fossilized biological environment characteristic for those animals. Other animal fossils are embedded in the mud or sand which has no trace of a sustainable environment allowing those animals to feed.
As the Mabul began, some animals were killed in its first stages, almost immediately. Some other, more mobile animals instinctively moved to higher positions avoiding the first waves of the Mabul. I-H, we will follow their footsteps, quite literally, in the following essay.
The Biological mass which flowed toward the lower elevations and perhaps geographical depressions, was covered by other layers of sedimentary deposits. Some of this material, depending on the content and conditions in their enclosures, was transformed to crude oil. In other places, rich in vegetation tropical forests, some of them floating forests, became lignite and coal deposits. B-H coal deposits will be topic of dedicated post.

Turbulent waves described by the Jewish sources brought a muddy or sandy material from different directions. Most of the times that direction was the same as the direction in which continent or island was drifting toward. If that material was rich in lime from marine creatures, it became limestone. Some of the limestone was grinded so fine that no trace of the original material was left, some other limestones are filled up with shells, crinoids, sponges and other distinguishable marine creatures.

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Some of the limestone under further pressure and heat became metamorphic rock known to us as marble. I don't know at this moment if marble is metamorphosed from Precambrian or later deposited lime stones. 
Layers of limestone are divided in different locations by layers of sandstone and other deposits
cemented or not, depending on the content of silica. The fact that layers of limestone are divided shows us that the tsunami waves containing marine life come more than once, bringing marine life from different oceanic areas of vegetation and other marine organisms. As today, types of marine life are depending mostly on the depth of the water which it thrives in, as well as other factors creating different zones of fauna and flora in the seas.
 
Even as the climate on the land was warmer and moderate, we can expect the same variety of
vegetation and animal zones within Pangea. The content of this life is also reflected in the fossils.
In some places, the sedimentary deposits are several miles thick. Only approximately 20% of the contemporary surface of the land is stripped from the original soil and new vegetation if it is growing in those areas, created a new thin layer of soils.
There are six basic components of the sedimentary strata.
Antediluvian life forms. Antediluvian soil. Grinded underling rock - sedimentary or igneous. Oceanic sand deposits with oceanic life forms. Volcanic rock. Volcanic ash.
The last one came in different forms. From contemporary volcanic activity, we can safely assume that most of the volcanic ash comes in the form of pyroclastic clouds associated with volcanic explosions. Most of this ash is deposited in the close vicinity of volcanoes, but some in the form of dust, can travel around the planet several times depending on the power of the explosion and winds. This dust is deposited as it travels.
At time of the Mabul, we are not talking about the ordinary volcano as we know it from historic records, we have to picture the planet Earth spewing its inner content in an amount allowing to create miles thick deposits.
Some of this dust was caught and mixed with the falling rain, some of it fell on the surface after the rain ceased, some of the deposits were washed away and dumped again in the places away from the original deposition.
In the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river, we may observe more than mile of such deposits and those are only layering up to Mesozoic rocks which contain much less than half of the Mabul deposits. Most of the original deposits above the Grand Canyon were washed away at the last stages of the Mabul, at the time when the uplifting of the mountain chains took place. In this particular case it was uplifting of the Kaibab Plateau which the Colorado river cuts through, forming one of the greatest spectacles of nature.
The Grand Canyon exposes us on the grand scale to one of the phenomena’s that can be only explain by the Mabul. 

​If we observe the layer of the Coconino sandstone which is easily distinguishable as the second to top layer on the South rim of the Canyon and as a third from the top on the North side, we may notice something strange.
Coconino sandstone gradually descending from the height of almost 9000 feet a.s.l. to the height of some 5000 f.a.s.l. without other fracture besides the Canyon itself. There is not a known mechanism allowing solid rock to bend in such a way that the rock is not fractured in the process of tectonic movements.
In other words, stone cannot be bend.
What can be bend however Is stone before it becomes a solid. In case of volcanic lava, it is the heat factor that makes stone flexible. But clay for example is soft when it contains moisture and is insulated from air.
All kind of cement can become solid under different conditions including insolation from the air and in constant moisture.
Coconino limestone is not only an example of wet deposition which under the pressure of tectonic movements rock was bent and solidified after this action.
Below we present other examples of such curving including a layer of clay with visible water ripples curved some 270’.

​Below we present a collection of photographic material depicting water ripples cast in time, from various locations in the continental US. All of the pictures were taken by the author.

Petrified water ripples - Route 2 Montana

Petrified water ripples - Glacier National Park - Montana

Petrified water ripples - Kootenay Falls - Idaho

Petrified water ripples - Route 93 south of Salmon - Idaho

Petrified water ripples - Katerskill Falls - New York